The report of the commission emphasized ways in which the equality of the two founding peoples could be recognized and led to the Official Languages Act of The Act recognized French and English as the two official languages in Canada and mandated that federal government services and the judicial system would be conducted in both languages. However, when a small terrorist group—the FLQ or Front for the Liberation of Quebec—kidnapped a provincial government minister and a British diplomat in , the response of the federal government was to implement the War Measures Act, suspending the rights of Canadians from coast to coast and arresting and detaining hundreds of individuals without legal due process.
The notion of equal partnership between French and English Canada was proven to be questionable at best. It failed to get sufficient votes to separate in the provincial referendum on sovereignty in , but the move to repatriate the constitution from Great Britain without the consent of Quebec in fuelled nationalist sentiment.
Subsequent attempts to include Quebec as a voluntary signatory to the constitution failed in the Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord.
Many people in Quebec regarded these failures as rejection of Quebec by the English majority in other parts of the country. In a second referendum on Quebec sovereignty was a narrowly defeated by a vote of The history of intergroup relations between the French and English in Canada on the model of equal partnership has therefore proven to be a tenuous experiment in dual nationhood. Income data from indicated that the income disparity between French and English Canadians both within and outside the province of Quebec had more or less disappeared, suggesting that the issues of intergroup relations had shifted to political, linguistic, and cultural alienation in Canada Li It defines French as the official language of Quebec, limits the use of English in commercial signs, and restricts who may enroll in English schools.
Although it remains controversial, it appears to have been somewhat effective in preserving the French language. Linguistically, there were 7 million people who reported speaking French most often at home in compared to 6. This is much lower than the 28 to 30 percent of population who claimed French origin in the first half of the 20th century however. In Quebec, This decline was paralleled by the decline in the proportion of the population who spoke only English at home in the rest of Canada from On the other hand, the number of people reporting that they were able to conduct conversation in both French and English increased by , to 5.
Bilingualism was reported by Many people with dark skin in Canada have roots in the Caribbean rather than being descendants of the African slaves from the United States. They see themselves ethnically as Caribbean Canadians. The commonality of black Canadians is more a function of racism rather than origin. The first black Canadians were slaves brought to Canada by the French in the 17th century. It is reported that at least 6 of the 16 legislators in English Upper Canada also owned slaves Mosher The economic conditions in Canada were not conducive to slavery so the practice was not widespread.
Nevertheless it was not until that slavery was banned throughout the British Empire, including Canada. Between the American Revolution in and the end of the American Civil War in , Canada received approximately 60, runaway slaves and black Empire Loyalists from the United States.
It is estimated that 10 percent of the Empire Loyalists who came to Canada following the American Revolution were black Walker Many black Canadians returned to the United States after the Civil War, and by there were only about 17, left in Canada Mosher After the change in immigration policy in the late s, blacks from the Caribbean and elsewhere began to immigrate to Canada in increasing numbers.
Prior to , Canadians of black origin made up less than 1 percent of the population Li In the census, they made up 2. Blacks with origins in the Caribbean make up the largest proportion of black Canadians with nearly 40 percent having Jamaican heritage and an additional 32 percent having heritage elsewhere in the Caribbean Statistics Canada Many Caribbean people come to Canada as part of the Canadian Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program or as domestic workers with temporary work permits, although the permanent Caribbean community in Canada has more or less the same higher education attainments and full-time employment rates as the rest of the population.
More recently, there has been an increase in immigration of Somalis from Africa as people flee conflict in the area. In the census, 4. Between and , more than 55, Somali refugees arrived in Canada, representing the largest black immigrant group ever to come to Canada in such a short time Abdulle Although slavery became in illegal in Canada in , blacks did not effectively enjoy equal rights in Canada.
Blacks had the same legal status as whites in Canada, but strongly held prejudices and informal practices of segregation lead to pervasive discrimination against the escaping slaves and black Empire Loyalists in the 19th century.
Blacks could vote and sit on juries, but these rights were frequently challenged by white citizens. As noted above, Ontario outside of Toronto and Nova Scotia enacted laws to segregate schools along racial lines that remained in effect until in Ontario and in Nova Scotia Black History Canada Blacks were also segregated into residential neighbourhoods in Toronto, Hamilton, and Windsor Mosher In Halifax, the community of Africville was set aside for blacks as early as , although most accounts place its establishment to the arrival of black Loyalists after the War of It was considered a slum by city councillors and was bulldozed between and without meaningful consultation with its residents.
Blacks were also restricted by the type of occupations they could pursue. The employment of blacks through the first half of the 20th century was typically limited to being domestics or railroad porters.
For example, the father of Oscar Peterson, the famous jazz pianist, was a Canadian Pacific railroad porter in Montreal, while his mother was employed as a domestic Library and Archives Canada Otherwise, for most of the 20th century, black Canadians were mostly employed in low-pay service jobs or as unskilled labour. The story of a large group of black immigrants who arrived in Victoria, British Columbia, from San Francisco in the s, illustrates some of the ambiguities of the early black experience in Canada.
The blacks were initially welcomed to the British colony by Governor Douglas, who assured them they would have full civic rights. Douglas and others were worried that the immigration of white Americans to Vancouver Island might lead to annexation by the United States and the arrival of several hundred black immigrants would help to prevent that eventuality.
There was also need for an industrious and reliable workforce and by the black immigrants were fully employed. The de facto leader of the black immigrant group, Mifflin Gibbs, was a successful shopkeeper and prominent member of the community. He won a seat on city council in the wealthiest ward of the city, James Bay, and acted as temporary mayor for a time. On the other hand, tensions and discrimination began to develop between the black and white communities.
Schools were integrated and only one church was segregated. However a dispute over black voting led to a racist campaign by future premier Amor de Cosmos. The blacks began to be denied access to some saloons and desired seating in theatres.
As influential as Gibbs was, he was denied tickets to the retirement banquet of Governor Douglas, who had originally been a great supporter of the black immigrants. By the time Gibbs returned to the United States in , the end of slavery after the American Civil War had already led to many of the black community leaving Victoria. Although formalized discrimination against black Canadians has been outlawed, in many respects true equality does not yet exist.
The census shows that black Canadians earned In , 24 percent of black individuals in families and 54 percent of single black individuals lived in poverty compared to 6.
In addition blacks are subject to greater degrees of racial profiling than other groups. Racial profiling refers to the practice of selecting specific racial groups for greater levels of criminal justice surveillance. Like many groups this section discusses, Asian Canadians represent a great diversity of cultures and backgrounds.
The national and ethnic diversity of Asian Canadian immigration history is reflected in the variety of their experiences in joining Canadian society. Asian immigrants have come to Canada in waves, at different times, and for different reasons. The experience of a Japanese Canadian whose family has been in Canada for five generations will be drastically different from a Laotian Canadian who has only been in Canada for a few years.
This section primarily discusses the experience of Chinese, Japanese, and South Asian immigrants. The first Asian immigrants to come to Canada in the midth century were Chinese. These immigrants were primarily men whose intention was to work for several years in order to earn incomes to support their families in China.
Their first destination was the Fraser Canyon for the gold rush in Many of these Chinese came north from California. The second major wave of Chinese immigration arrived for the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway when contractors recruited thousands of workers from Taiwan and Guandong Province in China. Chinese labourers were paid approximately a third of what white, black, and aboriginal workers were paid. Even so, they were used to complete the most difficult sections of track through the rugged Fraser Valley Canyon, living under squalid and dangerous conditions; Chinese workers died during the construction of the rail line.
Chinese men also engaged in other manual labour like mining, laundry, cooking, canning, and agricultural work. The work was gruelling and underpaid, but like many immigrants, they persevered Chan Japanese immigration began in with the arrival of the first Japanese settler, Manzo Nagano.
The Issei , or first wave of Japanese immigrants were, like the first Chinese immigrants, mostly men. They came from fishing and farming backgrounds in the southern Japanese islands of Kyushu and Honshu.
Like the Chinese settlers, they were paid much less than workers from European backgrounds and were usually hired for menial labour or heavy agricultural work. With restrictions imposed on the immigration of Japanese men after , most of the early Japanese immigrants after were women, either the wives of Japanese immigrants or women betrothed to be married Sunahara and Oikawa South Asians refer to a diverse group of people with different ethnic backgrounds in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.
The first group of Sikhs arrived in Vancouver in from Hong Kong, attracted by stories of high wages from British Indian troops who had travelled through Canada the previous year Buchignani They were encouraged by Hong Kong—based agents of the Canadian Pacific Railway who had seen travel on their passenger liners plummet with the head tax imposed on Chinese immigration.
Most of the first Sikhs in Canada arrived via Hong Kong or Malaysia, where the British had typically employed them as policemen, watchmen, and caretakers. They were originally from rural areas of Punjab and mortgaged their properties for passage with the prospect of sending money home. Many arrived in Canada unable to speak English but eventually found employment in mills, factories, the railway, and Okanagan orchards Johnston Many of them settled in Abbotsford Buchignani Asian Canadians were subject to particularly harsh racism in British Columbia and elsewhere in Canada in the 19th and 20th centuries.
The right of Asians to vote, own property, and seek employment, as well as their ability to immigrate and integrate into Canadian society were therefore severely restricted. The right to vote federally and provincially was denied to Chinese Canadians in , Japanese Canadians in , and South Asians in This disenfranchisement also prevented these groups from having access to political office, jury duty, the professions like law, civil service jobs, underground mining jobs, and labour on public works because these all required being on provincial voters lists.
Voting rights were only returned to Chinese and South Asian Canadians in and to Japanese Canadians in , whereas immigration restrictions were not removed until the s. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the immigration of Chinese workers to Canada, especially during the final stages of the building of Canadian Pacific Railway, led to increasing numbers of single Chinese men in the country who sought to bring their wives to join them.
As the Chinese workers were typically paid much lower wages than workers of European origin, various Asian exclusion leagues developed to press for further restrictions on Asian immigration. This led to riots in Vancouver in and eventually in to a complete ban on Chinese immigration. For similar reasons, the immigration of Japanese men was restricted to a year after , and further reduced to individuals a year after Their success in the fishing industry led the federal fisheries department to arbitrarily reduce Japanese trolling licences by one-third in When the Japanese, many veterans of the Russo-Japanese war of , successfully defended their community against white supremacist mobs in the anti-Asian riots in Vancouver, they were accused of smuggling a secret army into Canada Sunahara and Oikawa An even uglier action was the establishment of Japanese internment camps of World War II, discussed earlier as an illustration of expulsion.
Of the three groups, South Asians were the most recent to arrive. However, by the large number of arrivals led to the imposition of immigration restrictions. As the South Asians were British subjects, the restrictions took a more devious form, however.
The government then put pressure on steamship companies not to sell direct through-passage tickets from Indian ports. The famous incident of the freighter Komagata Maru in was a direct consequence of this restriction.
The ship, carrying South Asian immigrants, many of whom had boarded in Hong Kong, was prevented from docking and kept in isolation in Vancouver harbour for two months until forced to return to Asia. Only 20 of the passengers were allowed to stay in Canada Johnston Asian Canadians certainly have been subject to their share of racial prejudice, despite their seemingly positive stereotype today as the model minority.
The model minority stereotype is applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching significant educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without challenging the existing establishment. In the census, those identifying as Japanese earned percent of the income of white Canadians, Chinese This stereotype is typically applied to Asian groups in Canada, and it can result in unrealistic expectations, putting a stigma on members of this group that do not meet the expectations.
Stereotyping all Asians as smart, industrious, and capable can also lead to a lack of much-needed government assistance and to educational and professional discrimination. Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups Race is fundamentally a social construct. Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture and national origin. Minority groups are defined by their lack of power. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups of people. Prejudice refers to thoughts and feelings, while discrimination refers to actions.
Racism refers to the belief that one race is inherently superior or inferior to other races. Theories of Race and Ethnicity Functionalist views of race study the role dominant and subordinate groups play to create a stable social structure.
Critical sociologists examine power disparities and struggles between various racial and ethnic groups. Interactionists see race and ethnicity as important sources of individual identity and social symbolism. The concept of culture of prejudice recognizes that all people are subject to stereotypes that are ingrained in their culture. Intergroup Relations and the Management of Diversity Intergroup relations range from a tolerant approach of pluralism to intolerance as severe as genocide.
In pluralism, groups retain their own identity. In assimilation, groups conform to the identity of the dominant group. In assimilation, groups combine to form a new group identity. Race and Ethnicity in Canada The history of the Canadian people contains an infinite variety of experiences that sociologist understand follow patterns. From the aboriginal people who first inhabited these lands to the waves of immigrants over the past years, migration is an experience with many shared characteristics.
Most groups have experienced various degrees of prejudice and discrimination as they have gone through the process of assimilation. Racial, Ethnic, and Minority Groups 1. Which of the following is an example of a numerical majority being treated as a subordinate group? Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination 6. Theories of Race and Ethnicity 9. Intergroup Relations and the Management of Diversity Which intergroup relation displays the least tolerance? Race and Ethnicity in Canada What makes aboriginal Canadians unique as a subordinate group in Canada?
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination How far should multicultural rights extend? Theories of Race and Ethnicity Do you know someone who practises white privilege? Do you practise it? Intergroup Relations and the Management of Diversity So you think you know your own assumptions? Race and Ethnicity in Canada Are people interested in reclaiming their ethnic identities? Introduction CBC. March 8. Statistics Canada. Frustration and Aggression. Statistics Canada Catalogue no.
April March 9. Thompson, Debra. Wagley, Charles and Marvin Harris. New York: Columbia University Press. Wirth, Louis. Linton: In Hacker, Helen Mayer. Women as a Minority Group. World Health Organization. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Backhouse, Constance. Block, Sheila and Galabuzi, Grace-Edward. The Rules of the Sociological Method. Translated by W. New York: Free Press. Hudson, David L.
McIntosh, Peggy. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Wingrove, Josh and Kim Mackrael. June Distinguishing Features of Black Feminist Thought. London: Routledge. The Location of Culture. Conference Board of Canada. Day, Richard. Multiculturalism and the History of Canadian Diversity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Hall, Stuart. Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. Lewy, Guenter.
Mosher, Clayton. Population Studies Center. Ujimoto, K. Singh Bolaria ed. Social Issues and Contradictions in Canadiuan Society. Scarborough, On. Walks, R. Alan and Larry Bourne. Racial segregation, ethnic enclaves and poverty concentration in Canadian urban areas. Race and Ethnicity in Canada Abdulle, Mohamoud. Somali immigrants in Ottawa: The causes of their migration and the challenges of resettling in Canada. Unpublished Master Thesis, University of Ottawa. American Indian Cultural Support.
Black History Canada. Buchignani, Norman. Toronto: Historica Foundation. Chan, Anthony. Johnston, Hugh. Vancouver: UBC. Leslie, John. Library and Archives Canada. Marger, Martin. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Marquis, G. Massey, Douglas S. Persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities hereinafter referred to as persons belonging to minorities have the right to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practise their own religion, and to use their own language, in private and in public, freely and without interference or any form of discrimination.
Persons belonging to minorities have the right to participate effectively in cultural, religious, social, economic and public life. Persons belonging to minorities have the right to participate effectively in decisions on the national and, where appropriate, regional level concerning the minority to which they belong or the regions in which they live, in a manner not incompatible with national legislation.
Persons belonging to minorities have the right to establish and maintain their own associations. Persons belonging to minorities have the right to establish and maintain, without any discrimination, free and peaceful contacts with other members of their group and with persons belonging to other minorities, as well as contacts across frontiers with citizens of other States to whom they are related by national or ethnic, religious or linguistic ties.
Persons belonging to minorities may exercise their rights, including those set forth in the present Declaration, individually as well as in community with other members of their group, without any discrimination.
No disadvantage shall result for any person belonging to a minority as the consequence of the exercise or non-exercise of the rights set forth in the present Declaration. States shall take measures where required to ensure that persons belonging to minorities may exercise fully and effectively all their human rights and fundamental freedoms without any discrimination and in full equality before the law. States shall take measures to create favourable conditions to enable persons belonging to minorities to express their characteristics and to develop their culture, language, religion, traditions and customs, except where specific practices are in violation of national law and contrary to international standards.
States should take appropriate measures so that, wherever possible, persons belonging to minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue. States should, where appropriate, take measures in the field of education, in order to encourage knowledge of the history, traditions, language and culture of the minorities existing within their territory.
Persons belonging to minorities should have adequate opportunities to gain knowledge of the society as a whole. States should consider appropriate measures so that persons belonging to minorities may participate fully in the economic progress and development in their country.
National policies and programmes shall be planned and implemented with due regard for the legitimate interests of persons belonging to minorities. Programmes of cooperation and assistance among States should be planned and implemented with due regard for the legitimate interests of persons belonging to minorities. States should cooperate on questions relating to persons belonging to minorities, inter alia , exchanging information and experiences, in order to promote mutual understanding and confidence.
While there are many misconceptions about this time period in American history, some of the most egregious surround the institution of slavery in the mainland colonies of British North America.
It is common to read back into colonial times an understanding of slavery that is based on conditions that existed just prior to the Civil War. It is also important to understand slavery as an historical institution that changed over time and differed from place to place.
To that end, one of the most common misconceptions is that slavery was a uniquely or distinctively Southern institution prior to the American Revolution.
In the 13 mainland colonies of British North America, slavery was not the peculiar institution of the South. This development would occur after the American Revolution and during the first decades of the 19th century. Although slaves had been sold in the American colonies since at least , slave labor did not come to represent a significant proportion of the labor force in any part of North America until the last quarter of the 17th century.
After that time, the numbers of slaves grew exponentially. This figure, however, masks important regional differences. It is important to remember that the North American mainland was a relatively minor destination in the global slave-trading network. The vast majority of enslaved people ended up in sugar-producing regions of Brazil and the West Indies.
On the mainland British colonies, the demand for labor varied by region. In contrast to the middle and New England colonies, the Southern colonies chose to export labor-intensive crops: tobacco in Chesapeake Virginia and Maryland and rice and indigo in South Carolina, which were believed to be very profitable. While most enslaved people in the Chesapeake labored on small farms, many of those in South Carolina lived on large plantations with a large number of slaves.
By , one third of all low-country South Carolina slaves lived on units with 50 or more slaves. Ironically, those who lived on larger plantations were often allowed to complete their tasks for the day and then spend the rest of their time as they liked, free from white supervision. Those on smaller farms, however, often found themselves working side-by-side with their white masters, hired white laborers, and only a small number of slaves. As a result, they faced more scrutiny from whites, were expected to labor for the entire day, and had fewer opportunities to interact with other enslaved African Americans.
Although the largest percentages of slaves were found in the South, slavery did exist in the middle and Northern colonies. Other large cities, such as Philadelphia and New York, also supported significant enslaved populations. Although enslaved people in cities and towns were not needed as agricultural workers, they were employed in a variety of other capacities: domestic servants, artisans, craftsmen, sailors, dock workers, laundresses, and coachmen.
Particularly in urban areas, owners often hired out their skilled enslaved workers and collected their wages. Others were used as household servants and demonstrated high social status.
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